How to write a Research Proposal (Academic Proposal): Tips, Templates & Format

An academic proposal (research proposal) is usually the first step before embarking on a major academic work such as Dissertation, Thesis, Capstone Project, Black book Project. The purpose of the research proposal is to convince your professor that the topic chosen is appropriate and the approach suggested is sound. Once the proposal is approved, the student can begin on the actual research work.

Here you will find best practices, templates and samples for writing an effective academic proposal.

Writing a Research Proposal

What is a Research Proposal?

The research proposal provides an indication of what you intend to do for your dissertation, rather than being a rigid plan. It is very likely that your final work will vary from your initial proposal in some respects.

However, the proposal is the first stage of your project, and an important starting point for your research and for your discussions with your supervisor. It helps you to plan your work and to focus on the purpose and structure of your final project work.

The main purpose of a research proposal is to organise your ideas regarding the work, to convince your audience, and to meet ethical requirements.

A Research proposal helps formulate and clarify the topic of the research work and lists clear questions based on relevant literature. Ideal research proposals tend to be theory dependent, contain organised ideas, it lists what will be done and why, and how it will be achieved.

Related: Understand the various types of Academic Writing.

A research proposal helps students in several ways:

• It offers students you the opportunity to think carefully about the research project (i.e. what, why, how, etc.)
• You can check for feasibility
• It forms the basis of your research work/dissertation where you can elaborate further

Your college university will provide you with more guidelines on how the proposal will be assessed. usually, a word count is also provided. In most cases, the Word limit is around 1,500 words.

In order to complete the proposal, you must decide the broad area of study and then evaluate the proposed area in the light of your competence, possible difficulties, the financial constraints, time limitations, etc.

In writing your research proposal, you should use a range of materials (literature review) to support your research. Your research proposal although not graded, will be used as a basis for preliminary discussions between you and your supervisor and will form a basis for your dissertation. Once you have submitted your research proposal, you will need to proceed with your research proposal onto the full dissertation. A well thought through research proposal will provide a strong basis for a successful dissertation and help you to initiate the dialogue between you, the researcher and your supervisor. Therefore, it is necessary that you ensure that your research proposal is fit for purpose and it’s in the area in which you wish to explore further for your dissertation.

Preparing a Research Proposal: Various Steps

Here are the various steps in preparing a detailed research proposal.

Introduction

An introduction to your research explaining, in a compact and precise fashion, the nature of your research (scope), the aims and objectives of your research, what interests you about this particular research area, the general background to your research idea, the research question(s) that your research intends to answer, why your research is needed in the context of your chosen business environment/area?

Provide context to your topic and how your research will meet the gap in the research or contribute to your organisation. You may also include a conceptual framework and other aspects recommended by your tutor.

Mention the aims/objectives of the research followed by research questions. State one overall aim and few objectives, followed by specific research questions or hypotheses which will meet the aim.

Research Extent

Some colleges may ask you to provide the research extent. In that section, you can include why, what and how you intend to investigate your research topic. Ideally, you should provide a brief context for your research, its importance and relevance. You may wish to include some background to your research and two or three key research objectives/questions that you intend to specifically investigate. Preferably, include a discussion on your methodological approach, key literary sources that are appropriate for your research area and any potential ethical considerations that may emerge before, during and post research phase.

Review of Literature

Explain how your research fits into existing published work. You can do this by critically reviewing minimum 8-10 sources of information (academic references) related to the topic you propose to do and show how your research aims/questions intend to fill any gap or extend knowledge.

Provide a brief synthesis of the literature (literature review) on your chosen topic using wide range of sources. Literature should be carefully selected and examined. The research findings should be determined critically. The main purpose of literature review is to find gaps in research, and to provide context for the research study.

The questions raised can be converted into objectives and form the foundations of the research project. These objectives will help in guiding the whole project.

Formulation of Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a potential answer to your research question; the research process helps you determine if your hypothesis is true.

Research methodology and research methods

Explain how you are going to answer your research questions, talk about how the research will be done. Make sure you discuss both methodologies and methods for your research. You must explain your philosophy, methodology and methods including sample information, justify the methods to be employed and critically review the methodology/approaches you are intending to take referring to ethics and validity and reliability.

Resources you need/Access to primary and secondary data: Explain what resources you will need, what resources you have access to, and what specific access to organisations you have secured for the collection of primary data.

Ethical considerations: Talk about possible issues or concerns or dilemmas that may arise before, during and post research phase.

Time & Budget Estimate

You will need to talk about:

• Resources that you may need to carry out your research
• The time frame and schedule for your research

A researcher should make a proper estimate of the time for each activity to be carried out during the process. The time estimate is dependent upon the size of the sample for the study and the method and tools of data collection to be used.

For certain colleges and study programs, while preparing a grant to cover the expenses of the research project, a budget estimate need to be prepared along with the research proposal.

Reference list

Mention the resources that you referred to get more idea about the study topic. Ensure that each source fully complies with referencing requirements. The references should include around 10 journal articles from referred journals.

Research/Dissertation Proposal Format

This is how you should structure a research proposal. Colleges ask you to submit this information in a Research/Dissertation Proposal form.

1. Title: likely to change during the process. This is more of a working title of your dissertation and is subject to change. It should concisely summarise the research question.

2. Introduction and background to your research idea/topic – the nature of the research, why you wish to research your chosen area, your aims and objectives for the research, research questions.

   Introduction to topic including an identification of the research problem and context (company, market, sector, or location, etc), and the justification/rationale for the study.

   Here, you should present the central idea. Provide reasons for choosing this topic. Why it is worth studying and for whom?

3. Literature Review: Provide context of the research idea; synthesis and evaluation of the literature on your chosen topic. Identify what research has been done and your choice of topic. Quote the references, the work done, the gaps not researched and how you will develop the research question from these gaps.

   What has been done in the field so far? Is there a gap? What will be your contribution; you need to provide theory to support your arguments.

4. Research question/objective/hypothesis: Specify the problem/gap you have identified. What is it precisely that you are attempting to find out? A clear statement of the purpose of your research is necessary, either in the form of a hypothesis or a research question. Your research findings will be measured against your statement of research objectives, so they should be clear and achievable.

   You need to present the gap (research problem) and the Research Question that derives from it, as well as the Research Objectives.

5. Research method/s and proposed rationale for testing and analysis: Here, you talk about research design, philosophy, participants, research strategies, type of data, sampling technique.

   You may do this in two parts: research design and data collection.

   Outline the research methods you propose to use to undertake your study and to gather data. Both secondary and primary research methods should be described in as much detail as possible. Describe the techniques you plan to use to analyse the data you collect. Provide a rationale on how you will be able to test your hypothesis or evaluate your research question.

6. Ethical considerations (Practical and ethical issues): Identify any practical difficulties you may have to overcome in working on your project and gathering information, and discuss any ethical issues involved in undertaking your research.

7. Plan or timetable: Show when you plan to complete each of the major elements of your project (divide process plan into stages). A Gantt chart would be useful (see Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill ‘Research Methods for Business Students’ for guidance).

   You may also write about resources needed to carry out your research(finance, data access, equipment).

8. References: Please provide a complete list of all the references you have used in writing your research proposal. It is vital that you list your references correctly. It is recommended that you follow the proper conventions, else you could fail the proposal stage. Refer to English Language and Learning Support website (in case your college has one) for guidance on how to reference your work.

How is a Proposal Assessed?

A proposal is usually assessed based on the following:

Originality and Relevance

Originality and creativity; relevance; thoroughness, critical evaluation of extant theory and research; identification of research problem, etc.

Suitability of literature review including identification of research problem/gap. Clarification of research objectives/questions based on the chosen topic.

Structure, Argument and Focus

Clarity, presentation and definition of research objectives; presentation and coherence of literature review; continuity of themes; logical development; internal logic of arguments; use of evidence to support arguments, etc.

Methodology

Critical evaluation of available research approaches and methods; selection and presentation of methodology appropriate to research objectives; selection of analytical techniques appropriate to data collection, Ethical issues.

Justification of selected research design/method. Appropriateness and justification of proposed research instrument and data collection procedure, data analysis, and sampling procedures. Appropriateness of Ethical and Practical Considerations as well as timetable.

Style and Referencing

The academic work must make use of correct grammar and spelling, it must have nice presentation, it must make use of tables and appropriate referencing. References must be cited and/or listed following the appropriate referencing system.

Basically, a research proposal must use multiple range of sources of data, it must demonstrate a critical understanding of the use of general data collection methods in a chosen business context, it must identify and critically evaluate all the key elements of a research proposal in relation to a business and or management issue, and it must critically evaluate the research approaches which are appropriate to your chosen area of research (to the field of general business).

Things to Keep in Mind

Make sure you consider the learning from all your class sessions in the academic year, review the slides, materials, etc; basically, read whatever has been taught to you.

Refer to the example proposals shared, books such as the one by Mark Saunders, and the proposal Marking criteria. Understand how a dissertation proposal looks like.

Make sure you write in an academic, third person, and direct style. Make use of Grammarly if possible. Proof-read your research proposal before submission.

Use lots of citations integrated throughout all sections with an extensive references list correctly formatted and made up of primarily academic journal articles.

Please note this is just the proposal part, once you have discussed this with your professor, you can proceed with the complete research/dissertation work.

Research Proposal Template

Here’s a Research Proposal Template that you could use.

Produce a research proposal of approximately 3,500 words in which, plausible research questions are developed based on a critical literature review. A review of the research methodology and an outline of individual research methods to be employed and adapted with justifications should also be included in the proposal.

This proposal should be approximately 3,500 words in length, excluding references; and project schedule table. Note: extensive background information is not required and there is no penalty for exceeding the word count.

Your research proposal can include the following indicative content:

1) Working title of your dissertation (subject to change)

2) Information gathered to research topic:

3) Literature Review: Identify what research has been done and your choice of topic. Quote the references, the work done, the gaps not researched and how you will develop the research question from these gaps.

4) Research question/objective/hypothesis: Specify the problem/gap you have identified. What is it precisely that you are attempting to find out? A clear statement of the purpose of your research is necessary, either in the form of a hypothesis or a research question. Your research findings will be measured against your statement of research objectives, so they should be clear and achievable.

5) Research method/s and proposed rationale for testing and analysis: Outline the research methods you propose to use to undertake your study and to gather data. Both secondary and primary research methods should be described in as much detail as possible. Describe the techniques you plan to use to analyse the data you collect. Provide a rationale on how you will be able to test your hypothesis or evaluate your research question.

6) Practical and ethical issues: Identify any practical difficulties you may have to overcome in working on your project and gathering information, and discuss any ethical issues involved in undertaking your research.

7) Plan or timetable: Show when you plan to complete each of the major elements of your project. A Gantt chart would be useful (see Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill ‘Research Methods for Business Students’ for guidance).

8) References: Please provide a complete list of all the references you have used in writing your research proposal. It is vital that you list your references correctly.

Research Proposal Samples

Dissertation Proposal Sample (Consumer Reaction to Digital Marketing)

Title of dissertation: How Saudi consumer’s react to digital marketing and promotion on social media.

Information gathered to research topic

This research will try to identify e-marketing in Saudi Arabia because in recent times it has become highly important to understand the issues behind the gap between companies and consumers in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia has more internet users than other Arab countries. The great potential for the growth of e-commerce in Saudi Arabia comes from the influx of expatriates who work there. The government has committed money for the development of new ICT hubs around the country; however, there is still a big gap between companies and consumers because of different issues. For example, security information, the infrastructure of e-commerce and financial transactions on the internet.

Moreover, businesses have embraced social media as a platform through which to position their businesses on the national and international map. According to Dailey (2009), social media refers to online accessible and communication tools. He further adds that these communication tools are changing the way business is done. Social media has enabled businesses to cut down their costs on product launches and re-launching, helped in taking surveys on consumer and product trends, and helped in branding. According to Dailey (2009), the development of Web 2.0 in 1995 revolutionised social media with adds on like blogs.

Literature Review

According to Abdul-Muhmin & AL-Abdali (2004), the e-commerce users in Saudi have been increasing due to the growing literacy levels and investment in ICT frameworks. Another reason for the rapid use of e-commerce in Saudi Arabia is the use of credit cards. Almost every sector of Saudi Arabia has been transformed through internet support. Another reason for the rapid embrace of e-commerce is change in attitude of consumers‟. The elite and high income earning class has pushed the demand for ICT in Saudi Arabia. Most of the businesses in Saudi are embracing e-commerce as one of the ways to promote customer loyalty.

According to Dailey (2009), cultural diversity affects the way Saudi customers maintain their loyalty to the online businesses. Preferred to other countries, the shoppers would buy from businesses that tended to their wants easily and quickly. However, no reliable research, on reasons that affect Saudis‟ loyalty as online customers. The conservative Saudis‟ consumers embraced internet for the security it offered them. Customer satisfaction is paramount to maintain online customers who will repeatedly visit a business website. The online shopping enabled the Saudis‟ to keep privacy over their funds (Mustafa 2011).

In Saudi Arabia, the use of social media is justified. According to Cheung et al (2003), though there are few institutions creating reliable software to support the growing ICT sector, the gap has been filled with acquisition of the programs from abroad. According to Al-Gaith, Sanzogni & Sandhu (2010), the use of e-commerce in Saudi Arabia has however been affected by various forces. According to research carried out by Al-Maghrabi (2009), which he focused on the adoption e-commerce in Saudi Arabia, he noted that the use was greatly overlooked by women when it came to the implementation in business. Men however, showed concern over implementation of ICT in their businesses. Another factor that affected adoptability of e-commerce in Saudi Arabia is income distribution. According to Hasslinger, Hodzic & Opazo (2007), the trends changes in Saudi Arabia when it comes to adopting new technology. Moreover, research carried out by Cheung et al (2003), asserts that the level of security of transactions offered by websites affects the attitude of Saudi Arabia shoppers.

Research question/objective/hypothesis

The main research objective is to define and evaluate the challenges facing companies in using digital marketing and social media and understanding the online consumer behaviour in Saudi Arabia. To achieve that end, the following questions will be answered throughout the research: Consumers: – How many Saudis use the internet? Which tools do they use? What do they use internet for? Are there any differences in the answers to these questions according to demography? – How does the Saudi cultural context impact on digital marketing and social media response? – What are the drivers and barriers of digital marketing and the social media response in Saudi Arabia?

Businesses: – What are companies‟ perspectives on digital marketing and social media in Saudi Arabia? – Which companies have good experience in digital marketing? What kinds of strategy do they use to succeed? – Which companies prefer not to get involved in digital marketing and why? – What challenges do companies face when they use digital marketing? – What strategies can be used for successful digital marketing in Saudi Arabia?

Research method/s and proposed rationale for testing and analysis

The dissertation main objective is to define and evaluate the challenges facing companies using digital marketing and social media and understanding the online consumer behaviour in Saudi Arabia. The best way to achieve this is to use secondary research and a primary research together.

Secondary research: This involves understanding previous studies and theories on consumer behaviour, digital marketing and social media, and what has previously been written in this area.

Primary research: The segment for this research into online consumers‟ behaviour in Saudi Arabia is clearly people who using the internet in Saudi. The best method to achieve this is to use a survey. In addition, employees responsible for marketing in different kinds of companies in Saudi Arabia will be interviewed. From what has been written above, this data will be helpful in understanding the strengths and weaknesses of digital marketing and social media in Saudi Arabia.

Practical and ethical issues

• Some companies may not wish to take part in this research.
• There will be difficulty obtaining the marketing plans of companies.
• Some people may not want to fill in the questionnaire.

Plan or timetable

• Proposal: 1 Month
• Data Collection: 2 Months
• Interviews: 2 Months
• Data analyzing: 1 Month
• Writing of Research Dissertation Paper: 2 Months

References

Abdul-Muhmin, A G & Al-Abdali, O S 2004, Adoption of Online Purchase by Consumers in Saudi Arabia: An Exploratory Study, Management and Marketing Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals.

Al-Gaith, W, Sanzogni, L & Sandhu, K 2010, “Factors Influencing the Adoption and Usage of Online Services in Saudi Arabia,” EJISDC, vol. 40, 1, pp. 1-32.

Al-Maghrabi, T & Dennis, C 2009, The Factors Driving online Shopping in Saudi Arabia: Gender Differences and Behavior, Brunel Business School, Brunel University.

Cheung, C.et al., 2003, Online Consumer Behavior: A Review and Agenda for Future Research, Information Systems Department, City University of Hong Kong.

Dailey, P R, 2009, Social Media: Finding its way into Your Business Strategy and Culture, Linkage. Available from: [21 March 2012].

Hasslinger, A, Hodzic, S & Opazo, C 2007, Consumer Behavior in Online Shopping, Department of Business Studies, Kristianstad University.

Mustafa, I 2011, “Determinants of E-Commerce Customer Satisfaction, Trust, and Loyalty in Saudi Arabia,” Journal of Electronic Commerce Research, vol. 12, 1, pp. 78-89.

Dissertation Proposal Sample (Music in Advertising/Marketing)

Working Title of dissertation (subject to change): Branded Music Entertainment Online: How Businesses Use the Music Industry to Reach UK Consumers

Information gathered to research topic

This study examines how music is used as a strategy in online branded entertainment techniques compared to other methods such as product placement in films and television. It also seeks to identify the forms in which branded music entertainment exists and whether it is a more effective medium at reaching youth culture in the UK than the other methods.

As consumers become more marketing savvy and empowered with technology they have been able to find ways to circumvent traditional advertising. Branded entertainment is a marketing technique companies are employing to get ad resistant consumers to actively seek out their brand messages by insinuating themselves directly into the entertainment. Brands can embed their messages and products into the storyline or activity either by creating entertainment content themselves or providing funding to have a presence (product placement/sponsorship) in entertainment consumers already actively seek out, like television programs. More companies are experimenting with branded entertainment and figures show that more marketing budgets are shifting towards this advertising technique. Branded entertainment is going from an experimental marketing platform to an advertising standard, and its methods and affects on consumers should be studied as the trend continues to build momentum and validation.

Although music has been widely used by brands to create an emotional connection with consumers, branded entertainment has only been extensively researched through the perspective of product placements in film and television. The impact of the internet on the music industry and marketing communications presents an opportunity for companies to find creative and more entertaining ways to spread their messages to both wider and more targeted audiences.

Literature Review

As technology has continued to permeate our lives it has shaken up business models and transformed marketing communications, by empowering consumers. Traditional forms of advertising such as the 30 second television spot were based on an intrusion or push model, where marketers forced their messages onto consumers. (Donaton, S) One survey found that 90% of consumers have negative attitudes towards advertising that interrupts their films or programs (Gupta, 2000). Technology has now enabled consumers to evade these advertisements and only take in the messages they do want, a pull model. This shift in control has left businesses looking for other ways to reach consumers outside of conventional forms of advertising.

The first examples of branded entertainment took place as product placement in the 1890s when Lever Brothers placed their soaps in films. (Hudson et al, 2006). Proctor & Gamble then went on to produce and sponsor the first radio soaps to highlight their products in the 1930s. When the popularity of television rose in the 1950s, the company continued to sponsor and produce the now infamous American soap operas, Young & the Restless and Days of Our Lives. (Barnes, 2012) Often referred to as Madison & Vine, branded entertainment is the intersection between entertainment and advertising and has become an essential tactic for reaching today‟s consumers. In an international study by Edelmen (2012) of the MiIlennial generation, born between 1980 and 1995, 80% of them expect and want brands to entertain them. Branded entertainment engages consumers in a way traditional advertising cannot. Consumers are better able to align themselves with brands that reflect their self identity which is already associated with their preferences in a certain entertainment entity (Hackley et al, 2006).

In terms of the newly created term of “branded entertainment”, Hudson (2006) addresses its evolution from product placement, its growing importance in the industry, and the multiple forms the advertising technique can take. Branded entertainment can range from product placement, where the product is presented as part of the entertainment, to brands actually owning and producing their own content.

Branded entertainment has been well documented in movies, video games, and TV shows. This technique aims to use entertainment to conceal the persuasive brand message by weaving it into the content, diminishing the boundary between the two. Thus far the research on branded entertainment has centred on product placement in television, films, and computer games. The research has explored consumer attitudes to the practice and its effectiveness on consumers. Examples of this research include Nelson‟s (2002) study into the brand recall of placements in computer and video games, Karrh‟s (2001) and Gupta‟s (1997) research of product placements in films, and Tiwasakul (2005) studies into product placement in British television.

There is a gap in the research to the strategies and effectiveness of branded entertainment as a result of collaboration between the music industry and advertising, which will be referred to branded music entertainment. Basil (1993) has done some research into product placement in music videos, but this is a small segment of the more advanced branded entertainment technique. Furthermore, there is little research into the role of branded entertainment online. The same technology that has posed a threat to traditional business models is also creating opportunities for companies to explore branded entertainment, such as long form ads. Yet the only research to be found is Zhang (2010), thus far, whom has studied branded entertainment in the context of Facebook.

This research will study how branded music entertainment is taking shape online and how effective it is at reaching UK consumers. This will be compared to current and past research on the effectiveness of branded entertainment in other industries such as television and film.

Research question/objective/hypothesis

The research objective is to examine how companies are strategically using branded music entertainment online and to determine if it is an effective way to reach consumers. The research will attempt to answer these research questions from the perspective of the business and the consumer.

Business:

• What does branded entertainment look like within the realm of the music?
• How are brands using music and artists to reach consumers?
• How are brands telling stories online through music?
• What forms does it take? (sponsorships, product placement, etc)
• What is the impact of social media and digital technologies on branded entertainment and branded music entertainment?

Consumers:

• Is branded music entertainment an effective method of reaching UK consumers?
• Which age group is this marketing method more effective at reaching?
• Are certain forms more effective than others? (ie product placement in music videos versus sponsorship of concerts/festivals)

Hypothesis

I believe music branded entertainment is an effective method of reaching UK Consumers, particularly the Millennial generation.

• Which form of advertising do consumers prefer, music branded entertainment or traditional advertising?
• Which forms of branded music entertainment do consumers prefer?

Research method/s and proposed rationale for testing and analysis

This research project will use a combined research method to explore and answer the research questions. This includes:

Case study: Analyzing several real world examples of past and present branded music entertainment initiatives to determine the ways in which companies are strategically using the tactic. Tactics and forms used, objectives and “success” of each campaign will be evaluated. A minimum of 10 case studies will be analyzed.

In-depth Interviews: Interviews with industry insiders who can gain insight into the practice of branded entertainment and branded music entertainment such as marketing execs at major brands, record label executives, artist managers, agency executives who specialize in brand entertainment or brand entertainment specialists. A minimum of 15 semi-structured interviews will be conducted.

Surveys: Surveys will be given to UK consumers to obtain qualitative and quantitative data about perceptions and effectiveness of branded music entertainment. A minimum of 300 surveys will be collected to be analyzed.

Practical and ethical issues

Practical issues with carrying out this research include difficulty getting in depth interviews from industry professionals who are short on time, as well as finding data to prove the success of campaigns evaluated for the case study research. Many companies do not publish their financials; therefore other indicators will have to be used to define “success”.

Ethically, making sure respondents of the survey and the interviewees remain anonymous and that no confidential information is published without prior consent.

References

Barnes, C. (2012) Soap opera 2.0: the rise of branded entertainment in the age of smart TV. [online] Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/media-network/media-network-blog/2012/jul/27/rise-branded-entertainment.

Donaton, S. (2004). Madison & Vine: why the entertainment and advertising industries must converge to survive. New York, McGraw-Hill. Edelman (2012) 8095 Exchange. [online]

Englis, B., Solomon, M. and Olafsson, A. (1993), Consumption imagery in music television: A bi-cultural perspective, Journal of Advertising, Vol.22, p.21-33.

Gupta, P., Balasubramanian, S. and Klassen, M. (2000), Viewers‟ evaluations of product placements in movies, public policy issues and managerial implications, Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, Vol.22. No.2, p.41-52.

Hackley, C. and Tiwsakul, R.A. (2006) ‟Entertainment marketing and experiential consumption.‟, Journal of Marketing communications., 12 (1). pp. 63-75.

Hudson, S. & Hudson, D. (2006): Branded Entertainment: A New Advertising Technique or Product Placement in Disguise?, Journal of Marketing Management, 22:5-6, 489-504

Karrh, J., Frith, K. and Callison, C. (2001), Audience attitudes towards brand (product) placement: Singapore and United States, International Journal of Advertising, Vol.20, p.3-24.

Nelson, M. (2002), Recall of brand placements in computer/video games, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol.42, Iss.2, p.80-93.

Tiwsakul, R., Hackley, C. and Szmigin, I. (2005) “Explicit, non-integrated product placement in British television programmes” International Journal of Advertising, 24/1, pp.95-111.