Middle East: History, Politics

Academic Questions on Middle East

Q) How do Middle East ethno- religious movements, sectarian and Interfaith conflicts constitute dire ramifications for states erosion of sovereignty, creation or instability, rise of terrorism, and hinder sustainable development affecting Middle East politics and potential stagnation of world economy?

(Key topic issues: Traditional concept of state sovereignty, the social and political rights evolution affecting the principle of sovereignty and good governance, role of external powers, future of minorities, emergence of chaos and rise of terrorism.

About The term “Middle East”

The term “Middle East” was coined in the early twentieth century by American Admiral Mahan in 1902. The term was also commonly used in the Second World War when the British military established a Middle East command in the area under the authority of the war office.

The modern Middle East is a by-product of evolution over the centuries of the states and culture of the region, and the impact of nineteenth and early twentieth century European economic and political system on the region.

Ottoman-Turkish rule

For almost four centuries, most of the Arab world was under the Ottoman-Turkish rule.

The Ottoman Empire was the last of a series of Turkish Muslim empires. The Ottomans rule ruled Syria, Palestine, Egypt, parts of Arabia and Iraq in the Middle East whereas Persia (Iran) and the Eastern part of the Arabian peninsula remained free of Ottoman rule.

It was after the First World War that the Ottoman Empire ended and most of the Arab world came under the colonial control.

Before the World War I started, the Ottoman Empire entered into a secret alliance with Germany. But the war turned out to be disastrous for them. Over two third of the Ottoman military was wiped out during World War I, and up to 3 million civilians died.

In 1922, Turkish nationalists abolished the sultanate, bringing an end one of history’s most successful empires.

European and American Influence

For many years after the end of the World War II, parts of the Arab world were still struggling against colonial domination.

The political independence of the various Gulf states started to happen with the decline of European influence in the region after the Second World War and with the increasingly powerful ascendancy of the USA.

Yemen was the first state to achieve Independence in 1918 and the most recent was UAE in 1971.

For several decades, US (especially during the Cold War era) US was more focused on maintaining the flow of oil, protecting Israel, and was unwilling to make any political change that would produce effective Arab governments.

Post the Cold War, the US redefined its objective in the Middle East due to the strategic importance associated with oil, and made it as its key objective the region.

Pan Arabism

Pan Arabism was a political movement and belief system that promoted the idea that all Arabs should unite to form one country or state. Backed by several Middle Eastern leaders in the 1950s, the idea was to make sure that Western powers, like the United States or Great Britain, do not have any political power or influence in North Africa or the Arabian Peninsula.

However inability of Pan-Arabism to effectuate lasting prosperity in the Arab world (due to fragmented structures headed by selfish rulers, outside powers fearing the idea of one unified Arab country) led to a rise in Islamism as an alternative. Many experts now feel that the idea of Pan Arabism is almost nearing its end.

Challenges Facing Modern Middle East

Owing to its large oil reserves, the Middle East id experience good growth in the last few decades. But as the world gets less dependent on their oil, their economies have been facing a steady decline. In an effort to reduce their reliance on oil revenues, countries in the middle east are trying to develop alternative economic activities, such as banking, tourism, and light manufacturing.

Most Arab states are, to some degree, authoritarian, religion still continues to play its traditional roles in the Middle East, including exertion of political power that prevents structural and institutional changes. In most Arab states, no competitive political parties, associational groups, or organized political activities are permitted to function without restrictions.

The political landscape of the Middle East reveals a highly centralized system, dominated by nepotism and political patronage. Governance in the Arab countries faces numerous challenges – there is extensive personalization of power, denial of fundamental human rights, widespread corruption, and prevalence of unelected systems of authority.

Public participation in policy-making in the Arab states is either restricted or banned. Because of these challenges, there has been further alienation of leaders from their people, with many countries seeming like a powerless state in dealing with important issues facing Arab societies.

Going ahead, the Middle East region is very likely to see a lot of political instability. In the absence of real effective political and economic reforms, poverty is unlikely to reduce as oil prices are not expected to return to the oil boom levels, forcing governments to limit cash payments and subsidies. All these developments will lead to a broader civil uprising and conflicts will continue to rise.

Q) Evolution of the Middle East term through history, and its implications for Middle East regional and International politics.

(Key topic issues: what does it refer to in terms of political, economic and geopolitical dimensions, and what are the political drivers of such evolution with view to impacts on world political system, pan-Aran nationalism political project and why? What is the future of the Middle East in light of the persistent world powers struggle for the Middle East).